The Labor Market - 1090 Words

Introduction The landscape of the labor market is a critical factor in the economic comparison of different countries. Countries with a friendly job market are economically stronger because such an economy is able to achieve high living standards for its citizens. This paper therefore endeavors to explore some of the trends in the labor market in the US, EU, Japan and China Unemployment Rates As per August 2016 the unemployment rate was reported to be at 4.9% percent by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and this is the first time the unemployment rate fell below 5% since 2008. However, despite the fall in unemployment rates it is worth considering that only a few of the adults are working. Only 62.7% of the adult Americans are working and this has been so since the late 1970s.n On the other hand, the unemployment rate in the EU was rated at 10.2% in April which is the lowest rate since 2011. In the EU, Greece is by far the country with the highest unemployment rate of 23.3% particularly due to its economic meltdown. On the other hand Malta and Germany have recorded the lowest unemployment rates in 2016 of about 4%. In Asia, the unemployment rate in China by June 2016 was rated to be 4.05%. In the first half of 2016, 7.17 million jobs were created in the majority of the Chinese urban cities therefore accounting for 71.7% of China’s yearly target of 10 million jobs. In Japan, the jobless rate rose to 3.1 % in August 2016 from 3.0% in July. The unemployment rate in JapanShow MoreRelatedThe Labor Market1304 Words   |  6 PagesLabor economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for labour. Labor markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labor services (workers), the demands of labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. There are three main groups of actors or participants in the labour market: individuals, firms (or employers), and the government. IndividualsRead MoreThe World Labor Market1291 Words   |  5 Pagesthe labor supply created the world market labor (Lecture, February 25, 2014). For example, this resulted in millions of people to come to America and involve themselves in working for our country. However, migrants tend to always get paid little amounts which does not really help them out the way that they need or hope for but they stick around anyways. In addition, increased migration primarily helps the government’s economic state. For instance, the United States has a large labor market. ThereRead MoreAnalysis Of The Labor Market1247 Words   |  5 Pages Labor Market Fiscal and Regulatory Issues in Health Services, HA6500 Nwogwugwu Enyioma National American University Labor Market- delete Introduction The healthcare sector has been one of the most prominent employers of labor in the United States (U.S), and it keeps growing. The recent changes in U.S demographics, quality of professionals, policies, technology and the systems of funding and reimbursements have affected and caused changes in the organization and utilization ofRead MoreThe Labor Market Of The Labour Market1403 Words   |  6 Pages â€Æ' The labour market is defined as the place where employment and employee interaction take place, otherwise known as ‘Job Sector’. In the labour market, employers and companies whether big or small always compete to hire the best skilled, highly motivated and hard-working of individuals to compete for the best job available. (Economic, 2015). A labour market in complex terms is defined as an economic function which supplies different level of demand and supply of labour (Webster, 2015). E.g. labourRead MoreLabor Market in Singapore2318 Words   |  10 PagesChina and India. With these different stages of development, Singapore’s labor market had adapted itself by transforming from a labor abundant and capital limited city into a labor deficient and capital rich country (Chia 2005). Singapore is now a popular export-manufacturing base, regional headquarter for foreign multinational company and a financial centre (Chia 2005). The industrial structure has also prog ressed from a labor intensive export manufacturing to a capital and technology intensive manufacturingRead MoreThe Labor Market Of China2456 Words   |  10 PagesIntroduction The labor market in china has its unique features: cheap labor and huge labor force. These features have attracted many foreign investments and a consequently, the state owned enterprises started to suffer from competition. All these changes forced China to reform is labor relation system. This report aims to analyze the strengths and weakness of labor relation system in china, especially in terms of the strengths and issues in labor market and training. 1 Outperformance of labor markets in chinaRead MoreRecruiting in Labor Markets10081 Words   |  41 PagesChapter 7—Recruiting in Labor Markets MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. The limitations the U.S. government places on available visas for high-skilled foreign workers a. protect U.S. high-skilled workers from the outsourcing of their jobs overseas. b.- make U.S. firms less competitive world-wide. c. have resulted in fewer terrorist threats in the U.S. d. have resulted in lower salaries for high-skilled U.S. workers. ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: p. 193 OBJ: 1 NAT: AACSB Reflective Thinking LOC: EnvironmentalRead MoreGentrification Of Gentrification And Labor Markets1397 Words   |  6 Pagesresidents and firms, a frequently overlooked subject is gentrification’s ability to displace labor from an economic standpoint. This review will primarily demonstrate that the limited research on gentrification and labor markets has concluded that a relationship between the two does seem to exist. In particular, the literature has shown that gentrification may negatively impact the manufacturing sector of the labor market, which has negative implications for urban economies. The review will also summarizeRead MoreEffects Of Beauty On The Labor Market Essay1204 Words   |  5 Pageslaboratory experiment was conducted to fully study the impact of â€Å"beauty premium†, the positive association and relationship between attractiveness and wages, on economic success in the labor market. The experiment was conducted by Tatyana Deryugina, a professor of finance and her companions. Although illegal, labor market discrimination has occurred based on physical appearances and Tatyana wanted to test this notion. Deriving from this experiment, they were able to conclude that the beauty premium doesRead MoreThe Can adian Labor Market Of Canada1274 Words   |  6 PagesCanadians. Even today the Canadian structures and systems are affected by this legacy distressing the lives of everyone and especially the racialized people in Canada. This paper is an attempt to understand ethnicity exhibited in the Canadian labor market. There is a long history of maintaining unfair policies and biased practices towards Canadians who are racially different on the basis of skin color and other apparent features. Sadly with time unfavorable policies and differential treatments targeted

Essay on Eco Criticism - 1998 Words

Research Paper Literature Volume : 3 | Issue : 1 | January 2013 | ISSN - 2249-555X Ecology in Relation to Ecocriticism – A Theoretical Approach Keywords Ecosystem, ecological concern, ecocriticism, theoretical analysis. V. Shoba Dr. P. Nagaraj PhD Research Scholar, Department of English and Foreign Assistant Professor, Department of English and Foreign Languages, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India Languages, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India ABSTRACT One has to learn from nature, failing, he had not lived at all is the opinion of Henry David Thoreau. Whatever human beings do to the ecosystem have the reflections back. If man does not harm nature, the nature keeps him safe. Ecological concerns†¦show more content†¦Glotfelty had urged literary critics in a 1989 Western Literature Association meeting to develop an ecological approach to literature, which would focus on the cultural dimension of humans’ relationship to the environment. At the same meeting, Glen Love delivered a speech titled â€Å"Revaluing Nature: Toward an Ecological Literary Criticism†, and Glotfelty and Fromm included that text in their volume. Cheryll Glotfelty, the Sanford distinguished Professor of the Humanities for 2000-2002, revived it as ‘the study of nature writing’. The call for â€Å"ecocriticism† was seconded at Western Literature Association by Glen Love, Professor of English at the University of Orgeon. Glen Love seconded it in his President’s speech, entitled â€Å"Revaluing Nature: Toward an Ecological Literary Criticism†. Since 1987, the term â€Å"ecocriticism† bloomed into usage. Thomas K. Dean considers Eco-criticism â€Å"a study of culture and cultural products (art works, writings, scientific theories, etc.)†¦in some way is connected with the human relationship to the natural world†. He extends his explanation of ecocriticism â€Å"a response to needs, problems, or crises, depending on one’s perception ofShow MoreRelatedEcologism1381 Words   |  6 Pagesproposes eco capitalism If a Mimimalists definition of Ecologism is to be adopted, extencive questioning results as to the independence of the ideology, since many conventional politics have been greatly influenced by green thought eg. the Green Party in the UK. Burke has also proposed Green Capatalism, where enphasis is placed on the market to deal with environmental concers whilst supervised by governments to discourage certain practices eg. high taxes imposed on leaded petrol in the UK. Eco SocialismRead MoreA Critical Note on New Historicism Essay2751 Words   |  12 PagesIntroduction: The records of literary criticism and theory are almost as old as literature itself. As known, literary criticism is a sort of mental exercise of evaluating, classifying, analyzing, interpreting, judging, and valuing the literary art. This indicates that criticism also includes creative skill to comprehend the literary artist’s work first, and then put forward one’s valid view. In this sense, it is reall y ‘meta-literature’. The world’s successful critics and theorists are only the renownedRead MoreAnalysis Of Tianjin Eco City Project1532 Words   |  7 PagesTianjin Eco-city, which started in 2008/2009 is an ambitious project brought about by cooperation between China and Singapore, aiming for a responds to challenges the urban development has caused. Its aim is to be an example for the future improvement of the metropolis creation and performance; Singapore Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong and Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao made an statement for a â€Å"A thriving city which is socially harmonious, environmentally-friendly and resource-efficient – a model forRead MoreAn Ecological Translation of Shakespeare’s The Tempest Essay1517 Words   |  7 Pageshis â€Å"garments rather new dyed than stained with salt water†, but â€Å"Antonio and Sebastian cannot see them so. Gonzalo’s comment on the abundance of greenery in the island, ‘ how lush and lusty the grass looks! How green!† (2.1.51) Apart from Gonzalo’s eco-affability, it also shows how amidst Nature, man’s outlook/ perception broadens, refreshens, vitalizes and advances to a considerable magnitude towards spontaneity of Man-Nature bonding. It stands in sharp contrast to the monotony and stagnancy ofRead MoreEco-tourism Causes Damage to the Environment Instead of Conserving It1533 Words   |  7 PagesEco-tourism causes damage to the environment instead of conserving it. Eco-tourism is considered by most if not all as traveling to natural areas with responsibility in mind which the environment is conserved and the well being of the local people are taken care of as well as being sustainable on an ecological scale with a sole purpose of experiencing natural areas that builds environmental and cultural understanding, positive reception and upkeep (Brown 2011). However, tourism in natural areas cannotRead MoreThe Wellfleet Whale By Stan ley Kunitz Essay1743 Words   |  7 Pagestimes, a new genre of poetry has emerged and marked with mix feelings and the difficulty of recognition. Eco-poetry surface recently in the 1990’s. Since the 1990’s, eco-poetry continues to gain acknowledgment from the general poetry community as well as have many poems published under the eco-poetry genre. One poem that will be examined today holds many of the elements eco-poets found important in eco-poems. The poem, The Wellfleet Whale, by Stanley Kunitz, prompts issues on the natural world in generalRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Red Bird 1830 Words   |  8 Pagesillustrates true Eco-Criticism. Oliver’s illustration of Eco-criticism relates to themes of love, sorrow, empowerment, and laughter, which makes one reflect a certain way. As a result of how Oliver captured her works, she makes one look at the world at a different perspective, and have a peerlessness for the world. Eco-criticism is the the genuine relationship that humans have with the environment. Eco-criticism is illustrated all through out in the poetry in Red Bird. Eco-Criticism relates to themesRead Morestuff the tigers Essay1050 Words   |  5 Pagesas questions, ‘And what we supposed to do exactly?’, Mr. Clarkson might have influenced your opinion on this issue by his presentation of the issues in a friendly tone, ‘So why should I care if my children never see a tiger?’, and humorous manner, ‘eco mentalists’. Probably he wants to manipulate us using his humor and the way of writing and I am surprised at your newspaper for allowing this to happen when it concerns a serious topic. He also uses exaggeration (‘... we are told the polar bear is nowRead MoreSustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility at IKEA928 Words   |  4 Pagesorganization is easily altered due to economic pressures, technological improvement and stakeholder needs and demands. Going green or being eco-friendly is one such demand. IKEA is among the top sustainability leaders in the Scandinavian region. The company is able to confidently respond to questions of responsibility raised by consumers, employees, and investors regarding eco-friendly products and services. They have answered the call for both without sacrificing quality or price. Environmental and sustainabilityRead MoreInnocent Smoothies1064 Words   |  5 Pagesplace itself on the side of the consumer as supporting green issues and responsible business practices and this has evidently proved to be in favour with the company’s brand image which has resulted to its success. On the other hand, it has faced criticism from cynics who argue that the company’s ethical position is a facade as they have sold a 20% stake to Coca-Cola which led to thousands of dissatisfied and betrayed customers who previously supported the company’s initial brand values. This has

Resource Based View of the Firm Free Essays

Design/methodology,’approach – The paper proposes a link between value theory and accountability using a Resource Value-Resource Risk perspective as an alternative to the Capital Asset Pricing Model. The link operates first from the labor process, where value is created but is imperfectly observable by intra-firm mechanisms of organizational control and outside governance arrangements without Incurring monitoring costs. Second, It operates through contractual arrangements which Impose fixed cost structures on activities with variable revenues. We will write a custom essay sample on Resource Based View of the Firm or any similar topic only for you Order Now Findings – The paper thereby explains how value originates in risky and difficult to monitor productive processes and is transmitted as rents to organizational and capital market constituents. It then reviews recent contributions to the RUB, arguing that the proposed new approach overcomes gaps inherent in the alternatives, and thus offers a more complete and integrated view of firm behavior. Originality/value – The RUB can become a coherent theory of firm behavior. If It adopts and can Integrate the labor theory of value. Associated measures of risk arising from the labor process and mechanisms of accountability. Keywords Resources, Risk management, Labor, Competitive advantage Paper type Research paper Value, profit and risk 1 . Introduction To what extent is strategy framed in accounting terms and what role do accounting numbers and techniques play in setting strategy? In both cases the answer is probably not enough, In view of the potential contribution on offer from accounting generally, and from critical accounting In particular. In recent years, the resource-based view (RUB) of the firm, has achieved widespread dissemination In academic literature and management practice (Acted et al. , 2006). It explains nominative advantage, or delivery of sustained above-normal returns (Apteral, 1993) or economic profit (Barney, 2001), in terms of firms’ bundles of resources (Amity and Shoemaker, 1993; Rumble, 1984), which are valuable, rare, inimitable and non- substitutable (FRI.) (Barney, 2001, emphasis added). A theory linking asset value and abnormal returns Is therefore The author would Like to thank participants at the European critical Accounting studies conference, multiversity AT York, 2 Institute of Chartered Accountants in Scotland, whose financial support helped develop the ideas in this paper. How to cite Resource Based View of the Firm, Papers

Business Ethics free essay sample

A discussion of theories of business ethics in todays highly competitive market. (more) Business Ethics free essay sample In this Act the following words and expressions are used in the following senses, unless a contrary intention appears from the context: * Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other, is an agreement. Section 26(b) from Contract Act 1950 An agreement made without consideration is void, unless- * Is a promise to compensate for something done. It is a promise to compensate, wholly or in part, a person who has already voluntarily done something for the promisor, or something which the promisor was legally compellable to do. Case law First case University Malaya v Lee Ming Chong (FC) 1986 Facts: Lee was given a scholarship to study in Canada on one condition that he must work for the University for 2. 5 years. Upon Lee’s return, he left the University and argued that he had not provided consideration and hence there is no contract between Lee and UM. Federal court held that there was consideration as UM paid the fees. Reference: Ferrell, O. C. (2010). Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases, 8th Ed.. Cengage Learning What were the incentives for Countrywide to write so many subprime loans? Word count: 168 Countrywide Financial benefited financially from offering subprime mortgage loans. Since the interest rate, fees and terms of subprime mortgages are typically higher than conventional loans, the lenders are able to profit from this type of loan (Moulton Bozeman, 2011). Between 1982 and 2003, Countrywide reported substantial earnings, and the offered profitable returns on stock investors. By offering mortgages and loans to borrowers who would not ordinarily qualify, the ees and interest were collected from thousands of borrowers with this type of loan. They also extended loan privileges to a large amount of the population who would not ordinarily be able to own homes. I feel that Countrywide Financials Incentive for offering subprime mortgage loans was for financial benefit. I believe that they should have known the effects these types of loans would have If the economy took a downturn. They were too Interested In the profits to be made and continued the practice despite the negative effects It would have on people and the country as a whole. Moulton, S. , Bozeman, B. (2011). The Pulicness of Policy Environments: An Evaluation of Subprime Mortgage Lending. Journal of Public Administration Reseach Theory, 21(1), 87-115. dot:10. 1093/jopart/muq005 Ferrell, O. C. (2010). Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases, 8th Ed. , What was Countrywides logic in thinking that originating loans for people with poor credit ratings would result in positive outcomes? Word count: 182 Before the real estate crisis, the subprime mortgage industry was praised for helping people attain homeownership (Ferrell, 2010). Subprime mortgages helped minorities and lower income people be able to afford to own a home. At the time, it was thought of as a positive financial tool. Since there were more people being able to attain loans to own a home, other industries benefited from the effects of the subprime mortgage practice. Contractors, the building supply industry and real estate agencies were all profiting from these lending practices. It seemed that these types of loans were helping many industries. In a speech given by Govenor Edward Gramlich in May, 2004 (www. federalreserve. v), he spoke of these lending practices and said the increased availability of subprime mortgage credit has created new opportunities for homeownership and has allowed previously credit-constrained homeowners to borrow against the equity in their homes to meet a variety of needs.

Validity, Reliability and Generalization in Research

Introduction Validity, reliability and generalization are important concepts in business and management research. In different contexts, research is a clearly defined process where different elements and are studied, analysed and presented to show new approaches that increase knowledge regarding a particular phenomenon. Validity, reliability and generalization are crucial concepts in management research because they determine the manner in which management theory is applied.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Validity, Reliability and Generalization in Research specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Modern management theories have demystified many assumptions that are related to business practices which are observed in various environments (Riege 2003, p. 75). Therefore, it is important for researchers to understand the link between theory and practice and how these two concepts impact on management discourses. This paper will analyse the importance of validity, reliability and generalization in business research. The Role of Validity, Reliability and Generalization Validity can be described as an element of research which ensures that a study is conducted in a professional, accurate and systematic manner. This increases the credibility of a research study in the eyes of different people who are directly affected by its findings. In modern management research, validity ensures that a researcher vets the quality of his work before he shares his findings with other people (Riege 2003, p. 77). This approach enables a researcher to use accurate empirical tests to find out more about the sources of his information and how they impact on the quality of information he obtains. This ensures all conclusions reached by his study are backed up by relevant data and statistics. It is important for the data gathered and conclusions reached to correlate to bring about the desired conclusions in a partic ular study to make its findings more relevant to its users. Therefore, research studies should be conducted in a manner that allows findings to be interpreted in different management and business contexts. Different forms of research design use tests and other procedures to determine the level of validity in a researcher’s work. There has been a divergence of views about how various aspects of cause and effect relationships influence the application of the gathered data and statistics in research. For instance, in some aspects of case study research, researchers may be forced to review their personal feelings towards different subjects they are studying to ensure they maintain an objective approach in their work (Riege 2003, p. 81). A researcher needs to rely on other external tools to remove any bias that may negatively impact on the validity of conclusions and findings adopted by his study. In academic and real world perspectives, there is a difference in the manner in whic h knowledge gathered is understood and applied.Advertising Looking for critical writing on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Even though there are strong synergies between academic research and real world management approaches, a researcher needs to find out specific objectives he intends to achieve. However, a researcher needs to understand differences between academic environments and real world business environments and how they impact on his work. Reliability is an important concept in management research. It allows a researcher to attain goals that have been set in the beginning to ensure he understands how his study is likely to impact on different groups of people. Therefore, concepts of openness, debate and objectivity help to measure the reliability of a particular research study and its findings. In management and business research, researchers must be ready to defend the methodologies they use to come up with different conclusions and findings (Cornelissen Thorpe 2004, p. 3). They need to use evidence based, real life situations to ensure that the knowledge they gather can be used to make a positive impact in different fields. It must be noted that modern business research is applied in an environment characterised by constantly changing management practices which threaten the relevance of previous bodies of knowledge gathered through research. Therefore, all processes a researcher uses to come up with new bodies of knowledge should measure up to high intellectual standards. Researchers need to use analysis processes which are correctly linked to the central idea of their studies. They need to use techniques which accurately capture the viewpoints of different sources of information they use in their studies. More importantly, both academic and real world applications of knowledge obtained should be able to verify the accuracy and suitability of various research processes u sed. For instance, tests are used in research to find out if specific processes used by a researcher are logical and accurate. It is also important for a research study to show how results obtained can be transferred to other settings to reveal how they correlate with other forms of knowledge (Cornelissen Thorpe 2004, p. 6). A researcher needs to understand that every study undertaken seeks to find out new knowledge and how it can be applied in different academic and business contexts. Therefore, a study conducted should be analysed and critiqued by different scholars to find out the credibility of arguments it advances. The concept of generalisation has a significant role in business and management research. In some instances, researchers may need to use existing bodies of knowledge to come up with hypothesis regarding different phenomena they are studying. This allows them to understand the main arguments that justify their studies and specific qualities of phenomena they are stu dying.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Validity, Reliability and Generalization in Research specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Many researchers move from the known to the unknown concepts in their quest to uncover new information regarding a particular phenomenon (Cornelissen Thorpe 2004, p. 9). This allows them to use a study process that connects data collection, methodologies and theoretical applications of the knowledge they obtain. Therefore, generalizations equip researchers with important skills which they use to find out more about different paradigms of existing research knowledge. In effect, they are able to understand specific problems they seek to solve through their studies. Consequently, they are able to identify gaps between theory and practice and how they impact on the way business research knowledge is applied. Generalizations guide researchers to make both correct and incorrect infer ences regarding cause and effect relationships that affect various phenomena they intend to study. As a result, this allows researchers to use different approaches to predict and measure different variables. It is important for researchers to have safeguards to ensure that methodologies and research designs they use conform to high intellectual standards. In addition, researchers need to gradually shift from a perception influenced by multiple perspectives to one influenced by methodologically proven concepts to strengthen their arguments (Cornelissen Thorpe 2004, p. 13). They need to interpret different theories within existing business and management frameworks to find out their true impacts. They also need to use both analytical and empirical studies to come up with comprehensive knowledge in their studies. Therefore, this makes their studies more comprehensive because they are able to highlight issues that have not been well addressed by other existing bodies of knowledge. Appl ication of Validity, Reliability and Generalization in Designing a Questionnaire The role of validity, reliability and generalizations in questionnaire design needs to highlight important factors that underpin Human Resource Management research in an academic setting. The research design needs to focus on the contemporary application of existing HRM research theories in both academic and professional contexts. This approach will make it possible for a researcher to determine the relevance of current HRM bodies of knowledge in equipping students with vital skills they need to succeed (Tsang Williams 2012, p. 5). Therefore, this approach allows a researcher to avoid personal biases that may influence the nature of findings obtained from his study. It is important for a researcher to formulate important objectives he seeks to achieve to ensure he comes up with a strong hypothesis. Since HRM consists of many concepts, questionnaires should be brief and clear to ensure they elicit valid responses from participants.Advertising Looking for critical writing on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Objectivity in research questionnaires allows respondents to contribute their answers accurately. As a result, a researcher is able to use more appropriate methodologies which measure different variables that impact on a study. In effect, a researcher will be in a position to understand limitations that make respondents not to share accurate information regarding a particular phenomenon. Therefore, these principles are beneficial during sampling because a researcher takes time to vet all participants to determine their suitability. This will enable him to compile a list of participants who are aware about their specific responsibilities in making the study a success. In effect, a researcher is able to use suitable methodological tools and sampling techniques which have worked well in previous research studies to conduct his own study (Tsang Williams 2012, p. 7). Additionally, a researcher may opt to develop his own research methodology which is suitable for his study. All these fac tors determine the nature of results obtained out of a particular research process. An effective research process needs to focus on situational factors that impact on the information gathered from respondents. Previous HRM models have focused on understanding events that occur in various organisational settings and how various factors they outline can be measured or controlled. More importantly, validity, reliability and generalisation allow deductive reasoning by a researcher to ensure all steps of his study state specific implications that are likely to be realised. Consequently, this allows a researcher to design a questionnaire that serves multiple purposes as a data gathering tool. As a result, the questionnaire is able to capture behavioural as well as personality issues that are likely to influence respondents’ bias and attitudes (Tsang Williams 2012, p. 11). Furthermore, this helps him to understand beforehand the quality of responses that he expects to obtain throug h his study. Thus, a researcher is able to understand the limitations of processes he is using and how they can be addressed to improve the quality of his findings. The three concepts allow researchers to share relevant knowledge with their participants on how different management perspectives shape their thinking. The patterns of questioning used may either describe or gradually predict the manner in which different participants involved in the study are likely to respond. Therefore, using literature already gathered, a researcher is able to make inferences on the type of results he is likely to obtain to understand if they confirm or contradict his earlier assumptions. This makes it possible for a researcher to investigate different aspects of reality thoroughly, to come up with new theoretical findings that add value to the study (Vincent, Bharadwaj Challagalla 2005, p. 11). Since most of the participants in such a study are likely to be students, a researcher gets an opportunit y to investigate their understanding about real world application of HRM principles. Through their participation, the researcher may get to learn how to interpret the data gathered constructively. These processes are also important in the formulation of a hypothesis. The hypothesis serves as a comprehensive assumption that allows a researcher to think analytically about what he intends to achieve from the research process he embarks on. As a result, a researcher takes time to look at different theoretical interpretations of the topic he seeks to study and their relevance. More importantly, validity, reliability and generalisation allow a researcher to move from broad theoretical concepts to narrow theoretical concepts as he investigates different factors that impact on his study. In effect, this allows him to make a positive impression on HRM post graduate students because of the high levels of professionalism he exhibits in his work (Vincent, Bharadwaj Challagalla 2005, p. 16). Th erefore, he will be able to come up with appropriate findings and conclusions that stimulate intellectual discourse in different settings they are applied. When using generalizations to design questionnaires and other methodological tools, researchers need to take note of standards used to measure the quality of management research. In their research designs, they should maintain links between empirical models and other processes used gather and document the information they gather. The empirical formats used and the results obtained out of these processes should match characteristics of phenomena being studied (Vincent, Bharadwaj Challagalla 2005, p. 18). Moreover, it is important for a researcher to find out specific theoretical concepts that are important to his study and how they affect the credibility of results obtained. For instances, a researcher may need to understand how various branches of HRM studied by students influence their academic and career choices. As a result, this makes him take note of research gaps that are likely to occur in his questionnaires to understand how they are likely to affect his study. Recommendations for a Questionnaire Before the questionnaire is done, it is important for effective sampling techniques to be used to determine the nature of the respondents. The researcher needs to find out the number of people he intends to gather responses from and how they represent the whole population the survey will be based on. Since the questionnaire will mainly target HRM post graduate students, the first criterion for a respondent that seeks to be included in the sample is that he or she must belong to this population (Mohrman, Gibson Mohrman 2001, p. 358). Subsequently, he must look at other factors that are likely to define the exact sample for his study such as; age, lifestyle, cultural background, previous professional training and career ambitions. Therefore, he needs to use randomisation techniques to ensure he chooses resp ondents with diverse behaviour, lifestyles and career aspirations, to make his study more credible. The final number of respondents chosen should represent all the other students in the institution. The stratification technique will make it possible for the researcher to find out if the sample he has chosen is a true representation of all postgraduate HRM students in the institution. The researcher needs to decide on the segments of all student population that are crucial to the survey and their respective statistical relevance to the study. In addition, the researcher will have to use different criteria to stratify all segments of the student population by focusing on their interests, learning patterns, intellectual accomplishments and their attitudes towards the course. The researcher can use computer applications to select student respondents who represent different categories (Mohrman, Gibson Mohrman 2001, p. 360). Subsequently, a researcher needs to include representative perc entages of all sub-groups that are to be used in the sample before proceeding with the study. This approach will help a researcher to come up with a more accurate sample that comprises of students drawn from all statistically relevant sub-groups. Before designing the questionnaire, the researcher needs to understand the manner in which survey estimates are going to be tabulated. Both sampling and non-sampling errors are likely to affect the design of the questionnaire survey used by the researcher. The design of the sample needs to look at differences in estimates which are likely to affect the quality of the sample used. In addition, the researcher needs to note other non- sampling errors in questionnaire design which may affect the quality of responses he obtains. For instance, errors that occur due to bias may distort the views of the surveyed population thereby casting aspersions on the objectivity of the findings. He also needs to find out if his sampling techniques stratify th e targeted population effectively (Mohrman, Gibson Mohrman 2001, p. 362). As a result, the researcher needs to be aware about this issue because it may make it difficult for him to compile accurate data from all segments of the post graduate HRM student population in the institution. Before using the questionnaire survey, the researcher needs to look at other problems which are likely to occur as he carries out his work. He needs to use effective data gathering, editing and evaluation processes to ensure the quality of his work remains high. In addition, the questionnaire design should check on responses that are either unclear or misleading. This problem can be eliminated through using appropriate and easy to understand language in the questionnaire (Mohrman, Gibson Mohrman 2001, p. 365). Therefore, it is important for the researcher to engage with HRM students he has chosen to participate in the study to find out their language skills and levels of exposure. This will help him t o compile suitable questions for them to respond to. As a result, sampled respondents will be in a better position to answer different questions they are asked properly. This will ensure research findings and conclusions reached are valid and reliable. The time in which the survey is going to be conducted has a direct consequence on the results attained from the study. It is important for the researcher to come up an effective work schedule that outlines when specific tasks are going to be performed during the study. The most appropriate survey will be a cross sectional survey which will relate why the students chose to study HRM and how this influences their future career ambitions (Mohrman, Gibson Mohrman 2001, p. 367). As a result, the research study will be able to address different factors being studied within a short period of time. More importantly, the researcher should also consider other factors such as failure by respondents to give out any information and how this impac ts on the quality of his study. As a result, he will be in a position to evaluate the goals of his research to find out if they conform to his initial expectations. References Cornelissen, JP Thorpe, R 2004, ‘The validity and usefulness of management theories: a review’, Leeds University Business School Working Paper Series, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1-23. Mohrman, SA, Gibson, CB, Mohrman, AM 2001, ‘Doing research that is useful to practice: a model and empirical exploration’, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 44, pp. 357-376. Riege, AM 2003, ‘Validity and reliability tests in case study: a literature review with hand on applications for each research phase’, Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 75-86. Tsang, EW Williams, JN 2012, ‘Generalization and induction: misconceptions, clarifications, and a classification of induction’, MIS Quarterly, vol. 36 no. 10, pp. 1- 30. Vincent, LH, Bharadwaj, SG Challagalla, GN 2005, Antecedents, consequences, and the mediating role of organizational innovation: empirical generalizations, Singapore Management University, Singapore. This critical writing on Validity, Reliability and Generalization in Research was written and submitted by user Wyatt Gibson to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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Perceived Effectiveness of Sports Massage Therapy

Perceived Effectiveness of Sports Massage Therapy Massage therapy has been used ancient times. There is evidence that the Chinese used therapeutic massage more than 3,000 years ago. Massage has fallen in and out of favour over time. One of the newest forms of massage therapy is sports massage. Famous athletes have publicly expressed their great satisfaction with sports massage. They claim that it has increased their athletic performance and helped speed their recovery after strenuous exercise. Non-professional athletes and their trainers has also become increasingly interested in sports massage, partly because of the acclaim it has received from elite athletes. This has led to even more interest in the therapy by non-athletes. Some of the popularity of sports massage can be attributed to the increasing acceptance of all forms of alternative therapies. Despite all of the intense interest, there is a lack of accurate information about massage. 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While the exact science behind the benefits sports massage remains elusive, many athletes, coaches, and massage therapists continue to believe that it can have a tremendous positive effect if used both before and after sporting events and during periods of training. Introduction Massage is one of the oldest and widely used therapies in the history of mankind. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defines massage as: â€Å"the rubbing or kneading of parts of the body especially to aid circulation, relax the muscles, or provide sensual stimulation.† These benefits have been enjoyed since ancient times and almost all cultures have used some version of therapeutic massage(Vickers, Zelman, 1999). However, in more recent history, massage has become an important tool for athletes. Sports massage is now considered powerful way to help maximize athletic performance (Davidson, 2001). The prevalence of this type of massage has rapidly increased over the last two decades and the perceived effectiveness of sports massages given before and after athletic events has become widespread. Massage may have become more en vogue recently, but it is certainly not new. The first evidence of massage can be seen in the Chinese Cong-Fou, written around 2700 B.C. The text makes references to the manipulation of soft tissue. The ancient Chinese massage techniques involved applying pressure to muscles and meridian points. There is evidence that the ancient Chinese practitioners believed their massage not only relaxed muscles, but also improved the function of internal organs(Calvert, 2001). Ancient Indian texts also described various massage techniques that were believed to promote spiritual and physical healing (Pike, p.viii). Even Hippocrates taught a form of massage to his students around500 B.C. Another famous Greek medical practitioner, Asclepiads, was so impressed by the perceived benefits of massage that the stopped using all other medicines and treatments and only used massage therapy for healing. He believed that massage techniques could increase and restore nutritive fluids (Calvert, 2001). However, over time, Western cultures gradually abandoned the Greek beliefs about massage. During the middle ages, massage was still used as a folk remedy, but established medical scientists discounted it and the use of massage was no longer considered part of regular medical treatment. (Calvert, 2001). About 150 years ago, a French translation of the Cong-Four appeared. Historians believe the text served as the foundation for the development of the now-popular Swedish massage (Davidson, 2001). There is some dispute over the origins of Swedish massage, but many credit Per Hendrix Ling for its development during the early 18th century. Ling promoted the idea that massage could heal the body by boosting circulation of the blood and limp systems. Ling’s massage technique was very vigorous and he prescribed a standardized treatment. He suffered from gout and developed the system to improve his condition and later to help others. He did not equate massage with relaxation or any other psychological benefit. In fact, he called it the â€Å"Swedish Movement Cure† (Cates, 1998). Current Swedish massage has evolved somewhat from Ling’s ideas and is now more gentle, although the focus is still on increasing the flow of oxygen in the blood and to assist the muscles in releasing toxins. In the last few decades, Swedish massage therapists have placed greater emphasis on the psychological benefits of massage and they strive to provide a sense of calmness and well-being.(Vickers, Zelman, 1999) Historically, the interest in massage has been cyclical. Massage fallout of favour, only to once again regain acceptance, many times over the last 500 years. Currently, massage has become far less important tour culture than medical drugs and surgery, but it is again becoming more popular as an alternative therapy (Cates, 1998). There are still many forms of massage found throughout the world, including Hawaiian, deep tissue, and Tue. Na. One of the newest forms of massage is sports massage. Although it is considered a separate form of massage, it shares strong similarities with Swedish Massage and the most of the techniques employed in Swedish massage are used in sports massage(Davidson, 2001). However, sports massage also incorporates Shiatsu massage techniques. Sports massage was largely developed by Jack Meagher. Meagher was the massage therapist for the US Olympic Equestrian Team. He developed sports massage based on the theory that there are a dozen body postures that form the axis of all athletic movement. Meagher said that because each sport requires that the athlete maintain certain postures, it is possible to identify potential overuse injuries before they occur and help prevent them through sports massage. Meagher wrote that athletic performance could be improved by 20% with the introduction of sports massage (Dion, 2001). Although sports massage encompasses many techniques, all sports massages geared toward generating the maximum performance from an athlete. The effects of sports massage are achieved through a combination of mechanical, physiological, and psychological processes. Research has demonstrated that the compression caused by correctly-applied sports massage can improve lymphatic and venous drainage in the body and boost circulation (Hollis, 1997). Under the general heading of sports massage, there are three distinctly different types of massage. Each has a different goal and employs different strokes. The three categories of sports massage are pre-event, post-event, and maintenance massage. Although sports massage has recently become more sophisticated, modern athletics have been using forms of pre-event and post-event massage for decades. For example, baseball pitchers have long used massage as an attempt to extend the length of their career by maintaining range of motion and flexibility. For many decades, boxing coaches and trainers have been seen giving boxers â€Å"rubdowns† before a fight in an effort toward-up the body by boosting circulation. This is an early form fore-event massage (Pike, p.viii). Modern sports massage first became integrated as part some teams ‘standard athletic training in the former Soviet Union, East Germany, and other Eastern European countries during the 1960s. Soviet teams were the first to employ dedicated massage therapists that traveled with them. In the 1970s, the trend became more widespread, as more European countries and teams in the United States began to take interest in sports massage (Davidson, 2001). However, it is only since the 1980s that sports massage has become truly mainstream. Now, it is a common practice for teams to integrate sports massage as part of their standard training regimen. Certified sports massage therapists have been seen at many major sporting events, including Ironman competitions, the Goodwill and Pan-American games, marathons, the Olympics, and professional bike races (Latina, 2000).When the U.S women’s soccer team defeated China, winning the World Cup, the players publicly thanked their sports massage therapist, Wynn Clinton and Jim Fayola. Goalkeeper Tracy Ducat said, â€Å"Clinton and Jim Fayola, who worked with him during the World Cup, were invaluable in the treatment they provided for us, testified Tracy Ducat, a goalkeeper on the team. We could not have been at our best without their help every day. Goalie Saki Webber agreed, saying, Without Clinton I think that it would have been a much different story. I think that he kept us healthy and kept us together during the World Cup† (Hued, 2002). Sports massage has also infiltrated smaller sports. For example, even some Canadian cowboys are receiving massages before and after rodeos, thanks to new mobile massage rooms are traveling with them (Visconti,p.54). Although professional sports teams have lead the way in incorporating sports massage, college, some secondary schools, and amateur teams are also exploring massage as a way to enhance performance. The public’s perceived value of the effectiveness of sports massage has been fuelled by public statements from well-known professional athletes who say their extraordinary skills have improved after undergoing regular massage therapy. For example, tennis champion, Martina Navratilova said, â€Å"I started getting massages and realized what wonderful thing it is for your body† (Sports Massage: Taking the Field ). Former professional football quarterback, Joe Montana, has said, â€Å"I’ve been working with massage for a few years now, and I found it helps you to recover a little quicker. The bumps and bruises seem Togo away a lot faster† (Sports Massage: Taking the Field). Canadian National Swim Team member, Marianne Limpet, agrees: â€Å"I find that massage is very beneficial in helping with a quicker recovery from hard training or racing, and it prevents me from getting tight muscles and injuring myself. I am one of few athletes at my age(30), and Im sure that massage has played a major role in helping to keep my body in shape to continue to this level† (Warren, 2003). Even Marjorie Album, the Chief Athletic Trainer of the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games, once commented, â€Å"I would not provide sports medicine services for any major athletic event without massage therapists.†(Sports Massage: The Athlete’s Trainer’s Edge ) With glowing testimonials from esteemed athletes and sports professionals, it is not surprising that more amateur and college athletes are now becoming interested in sports massage. After all, our society places great emphasis and value on athletics, and the financial and emotional rewards can be great to those who excel in their chosen sport. It is not surprising that sports massage is popular among those searching for competitive edge. This relatively new appreciation for sports massage has increased as part of a larger trend toward ergogenic aids to boost all types of athletic performance. Ergogenic aids include a wide variety of tools and therapies, such as visualization, meditation, and pre-event stretching. Advocates of sports massage say it is valuable ergogenic tool that can improve circulation, reduce stress, promote muscle efficiency and healing, and even prevent injuries (Pike, p. vii). The perceived benefits of massage have also become more wide-spread as the general acceptance of alternative medicines has increased. In a1997 random sample of 1,500 households in the United States, 42% of adults reported using some type of alternative therapy in the last year. Nearly 45% said they would be willing to pay more each month for alternative care. Additionally, when choosing healthcare, nearly 70% of respondents said having access to alternative therapies is an important factor in choosing a health insurance plan (Landmark Healthcare Inc.,1997). Alternative medicine is even more popular in the United Kingdom, where in studies, nearly 47% of respondents have reported they are using alternative therapies. Also in the U.K., of those undergoing complementary medicine, nearly nine out of ten are paying for their treatment (Thomas et al. p. 2 -11 ). Massage therapy is one of the fasting growing forms of alternative medicine. In 1999, The American Massage Therapy Association (AMTA)conducted a nationwide survey in the United States. Researchers found that 27% of adults had therapeutic massage in the last five years, compared to only 17% in a 1997 study who said they had a massage in the previous five years (Massage: Much-Kneaded Complementary Health Care). Another study conducted the previous year found that visits to massage therapists increased by nearly 36% in the years between 1990 and 1997(Eisenberg et al. p. 1569). Furthermore, in 2004, the National Centerior Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States reported that massage has become the ninth most popular alternative therapy treatment. In the study, 5% of respondents said they had received massage therapy at least one time in the previous year (Boneset al.). This translates into big business for the massage industry, as American consumers are spending up to $6 billion dollars a year on massage therapy (Eisenberg et al., p. 1569). This increasing interesting massage has created a surge in massage school educational facilities and applicants. As of 2002, there were more than 950 state-licensed massage schools in the U.S., which is 14% more school than existed in2000. In 2001, massage schools turned out an estimated 30,000 new graduates (Lacombe, p. 49). There are other significant signs that the perceived benefits of massage is having a strong effect on public policy. In the United States, The National Institutes of Health is currently sponsoring three studies in an attempt to clarify the medical benefits of massage. Additionally, a national survey of employer-sponsored healthcare plans found that 15% of HMOs cover massage therapy. Cigna and Blue Cross BlueShield also cover some forms of massage (Lacombe, p. 49).Furthermore, a 1995 study found that more than half of family doctors in the United States said they would recommend some form of massage therapy to their clients (Hedwig, p.1). This is a concern to some researchers who wonder if the benefits of massage are worth the price of the therapy. In their meta-analysis of massage therapy research, Moyer, Rounds, and Hanno wrote, â€Å"For these trends to continue (indeed, to determine if they even should continue),what is needed is a more rigorous and quantitative examination of MT’s(massage therapy’s) effectiveness that that which currently exists†(Moyer et al.). The perceived, yet often unexplained, effects of massage (including sports massage) have even created interested within the White House. In2004, the White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy called for more research and funding for public education on massage therapy. The commission’s chairman, James Gordon, did not offer an explanation of the actual benefits of massage, but he did allude to the widespread perceived effectiveness of the alternative treatment. He said: We shouldnt put too much weight on its benefits, but at the same time we should make it available to everyone. Massage does decrease anxiety, reliably. It does decrease pain in a number of people with chronic-pain syndrome. It does improve mood. Exactly how it does it, I don’t think we know (Lacombe, p. 50). AMTA researchers say as more people accept massage therapy as a viable treatment option, more athletes are becoming interested in sports massage. The AMATA now recognizes sports massage as a unique specialty field within the massage industry. There has also been increased interest in sports massage among the so-called â€Å"weekend warriors†(people who only exercise on the weekends) and those do not consider themselves athletes or exercise regularly. No matter how little time they spend taking part in athletics, some people want to enjoy the perceived benefits of sports massage. Licensed massage therapist John Balletto said, â€Å"Anyone who exercises or works in an active job or even has to constantly bend down to pick up a child can benefit from sports massage. This type of massage helps muscles deal with the repetitive motions inherent to these activities (Latina, 2000). In the past, there was a public perception that only elite athletes and wealthy, pampered women received regular massages. As sports massage becomes more mainstream and begins to be embraced by the general public, there is an increased perception that sports massage is not only a luxury, but a new necessity. This trend can be seen in many forms of mainstream media. For example, a college newspaper in Texas, The University Daily, recently ran an article that stated that more financially strained college students were paying for massages as a way to combat stress. It also explained how deep tissue massage can help relieve pain associated with carrying heavy book bags and suggested that students ask their parents to pay for a massage session. A massage therapist in the article was quoted as saying, â€Å"It is very therapeutic. It’s not a luxury like people think. If more people think of it as therapy, then more people could justify it that way (Aaron). However, despite the widespread interest in sports massage, there is a lack of reliable information on its benefits and effects. Using a search engine like Goolgle.com to search under the â€Å"benefits of sports massage† will turn up hundreds of websites offering glowing testimonials about the therapy and claims that are not backed up by current scientific research. For instance, SportsInjuryClinic.net claims that regular sports massage treatments will â€Å"maintain the body, prevent injuries and loss of mobility, cure and restore mobility to injured muscle tissue, boost performance, and extend the overall life of your sporting career† (Sports Injury Clinic). Another website for massage centre in Connecticut bluntly states, â€Å"Massage is beneficial when starting a conditioning program because it helps you get into good shape faster† (Buckland Massage Neuromuscular Centre). With so many websites making fantastic claims about the benefits of sports massage, it is easy to understand why the perceived benefits of sports massage currently held by the general public do not always match current scientific research. As previously mentioned, sports massage is broken down into three main categories: pre-event, post-event, and routine maintenance. Each of these forms of sports massage uses a combination of stroke techniques. In order to understand the research and perceived benefits of sports massage, it is important to understand the various stroke styles. The most common stroke strokes are effleurage, petrissage, and cupping(Davidson, 2001). Other common strokes include friction, range of motion movements, trigger point, and compression (which some massage therapists classify as a type of petrissage) (Pike, p. 26-31). Effleurage utilizes long, gentle strokes. This is the most basic type of stroke and warms the area for the work to come by increasing blood flow to the muscle (Pike, p. 26). This is the main stroke for creating relaxation and is often used most frequently at the start and end of massage therapy session, although it is useful throughout the therapy(Cates, 1998). Petrissage is a firmer, two handed kneading technique that includes blows to the muscle. Both hands grab the muscle and compress it. Massage therapists use petrissage to loosen tight muscles and squeeze blood out from deeper structures (Davidson, 2001). Cupping involves hitting the muscles with cupped hands. This stroke technique is used to break down scar tissue, relieve tension and tone the muscles (Davidson, 2001). Friction strokes are used only during deep tissue massage to relax the muscles and reduce adhesions. These circular strokes generate heat by increasing blood flow to the area being worked on (Pike, p. 32) Range of motion movements are assisted exercises that the massage therapist uses to increase the mobility of joints. The massage therapist moves the body while the athlete stays relaxed. Massage therapists report that this technique can extremely helpful for athletes, who usually need to have the maximum range of movement possible in order to excel at their sport (Pike, p. 34). Trigger points are parts of the muscle that are tight and painful. When massage therapist applies pressure to a trigger point, the athlete will often cry out in pain. Correctly massaging a trigger point will help release tight muscles and â€Å"break the pain cycle so the tissue can get blood and nutrients to heal and relax itself† (Pike, p. 31) Compression strokes are used on muscle bellies, generally in large areas, like the adductors. Massage therapists use compression, which Isa squeezing movement, to feel the tissues under the skin. Compression can stimulate and warm the tissue or relax the athlete, depending on the firmness of the stroke (Pike, p. 30). Many people mistakenly think that sports massage is beneficial because it is somehow â€Å"deeper† than other massages. However, that is not always the case. Sports massage is any massage technique that allows â€Å"active people to stay active, to keep the body in working order, and to aid rehabilitation following injury.. Thus it can also involve gentle rubbing, or even no rubbing at all. In fact, there are times when rubbing may be harmful and in this instance, stretching may be more beneficial† (Famous Therapies). Literature Review Many massage therapists believe that pre-event sports massage can help prevent serious injury by warming-up the muscles and improve performance during a competition. Meagre was strong advocate for-event massages. In his book, Sports massage, he wrote: Whatever sport you play, Sports massage will give you 20 per cent extraextra performance, extra protection, (and) extra time per game, per season, (and) per career.With Sports massage you can do what you do better, longer, and more easily, raising your performance level at the same time that you lower the stress level it places on your body†¦. Sports massage before (problems) reach the critical stage is the only sensible way to keep your entire muscular structure in top form(Massage Before, or After?). Pre-event massage is not intended to replace traditional warm-up methods. It is usually performed just before the athlete’s standard warm-up. Rapid effleurage stimulates and warms the muscles andpetrissage encourages the release of tension. It is common for the massage therapist to use shaking and stretching techniques. Deep tissue and friction are avoided. The part of the body that is massaged depends on the sport, but usually includes leg and back muscles (Davidson,2001). Pre-event massage generally only lasts about ten minutes. The goal Isa reduction in tension, but not total relaxation. Sports massage therapist, James Weslaco, says that most athlete want to feel stimulated, not overly relaxed, by a pre-event massage because being too relaxed can adversely affect performance (Vanderbilt, 2001). â€Å"(Pre-event massage) objectives are to increase circulation, increase range of motion of the joints, decrease tightness and hyper tonicity of major joints and muscles, and to relax and then invigorate the body to get it ready for the competition† (Pike, p. 19) The perceived benefit of fully prepared muscles is important to many athletes, who are well-aware of the many career-ending injuries that have been blamed on not properly warming-up. There is a widely-held belief that overuse injuries can be avoided if the athlete is warmed-up with a combination of massage and standard warm-up practices. However, many studies have suggested that the benefits of pre-event sports massage are mostly psychological and there is no evidence theatre-event massage can decrease the risk of injuries (Harmer, p.55). Some athletes say they perform better on the field after receiving pre-event massage. However, again, the benefits appear to be purely psychological. Research shows that massage, which is part of passive warm-up techniques that can also include saunas and hot showers, have little positive effect on performance (Volant’s, et al., 2001). In one study, members of a group of athletes who received pre-event massage each reported feeling that they could perform better on the field because of the therapy. Yet, their performance, heart rate and arteriovenous oxygen responses were not noticeable different than those of a control group that did not receive massage (Boone, et al., 1991). Although there are many widely embraced perceived benefits to pre-event sports massage, there has not been enough research to back up the antidotal evidence given by athletes and their massage therapists. Some studies have indicated that there can be physiological responses that result in improved outcome for the athlete. However, much of the research has not quantified the technique and pressure used by the massage therapist.. No study to date has examined how stroke forms and pressure (light touch versus firm) as an independent variable can affect athletic performance (Moyer et al.). Even though the benefits of pre-event massage are still unknown, it continues to increase in popularity, not just in athletics but also another performance-driven industries. Robert King, president and-founder of Chicago School of Massage Therapy, says Its a debatable subject in terms of actual research that substantiates it.† Yet, he continues to see the demand for pre-event message grow. Ive worked on runners, actors and actresses before performances, boxers and swimmers, and again it depends on the type of muscle youre going to encounter and the condition and goals of the athlete. The approach is geared toward the needs of that particular event (Vanderbilt, 2001). Unlike pre-event massage, post-event massage may have measurable benefits. Post-event massage is performed one to two hours after the athlete has finished taking part in a sporting event, in order to allow time for blood vessels dilated by exercise to return to their normal state. The goal of this type of massage is to reduce the trauma caused by strenuous exercise. Light effleurage is used to minimize swelling. Practitioners believe light petrissage will promotes cellular waste removal and clear toxins from the body. (Pike, p. 20). â€Å"The goals are to relax tight muscles, decrease muscle soreness, facilitate faster recovery time, relieve cramping, increase lymphatic circulation and removal of post activity metabolites, and relax the nervous system† (Pike, p. 20). Other perceived benefits of post-event massage therapy include the lessening of muscle spasms and an increase in flexibility which may prevent future injuries. Although receiving a massage after a strenuous workout can feel very pleasurable, practitioners should limit sessions to under 30 minutes because tired muscles may be more prone to injury. In fact, some therapists believe that the longer the athletic event is, the shorter the post-event massage should be (Cates, 1998). The perceived effectiveness of post-event massage is pervasive among professional athletes. There is a strong belief that the therapy can speed recovery after extreme exertion. For example, Butch Reynolds, the400 meter world record holder was quoted as saying that because of massage, â€Å"If [a muscle pull or strain] does occur, it’s easy to heal. The healing process is cut in half.† Professional football linebacker Al Smith has also heralded the benefits of post-event massage. He said, â€Å"It helps me quite a bit. It helps my recovery time from the game. Athletes are using it quite a bit.† (Sports Massage: Taking the Field)Perhaps the most famous advocate of post-event massage is Michael Jordan. In talking about his physical problems after a performance, the basketball player said, â€Å"I was a little concerned, because I couldn’t really walk welland my mobility was very, very limited. But two days of electros Tim, massaging and heat treatments really loosened things up (How Massage Aides Athletic Performance). Despite scepticism that massage has physiological benefits, Davidson advocates the use of post-event massage to speed recovery (2001). She writes that sports massage can reduce the swelling of micro-traumas. Micro-traumas are small tears that occur in muscles during strenuous exercise. Davidson claims that post-event massage will also remove lactic acid and waste build-up in the muscles, help maintain flexibility, and reduce cramping. However, while Davidson’s theories may be popular, there are studies that dispute the claims. For instance, the blood pressure, cardiac output, heart rate, and lactic acid levels of ten men were compared during a recent study. Lactic acid is a by-product of exercise that occurs during exercise when there is a lack of oxygen in the body’s tissues. Some massage practitioners have made the claim that massage can help the body eliminate waste products, including lactic acid. However, the men in the study who received massage had similar levels of lactic acid to the men who were not treated with a massage(Callaghan, p. 31). Furthermore, the group that received massages performed no better than the control group. The idea the lactic acid can (and should) be flushed from the body during post-event massage is a good example of how the perceived effectiveness of massage does not always match current scientific research. For many years, massage therapists believed that they could help athletes get rid of lactic acid. They passed this belief onto clients, including many athletes, who accepted the theory as fact. The false assumptions about lactic acid were even taught in massage schools. Even though scientific studies have debunked this belief, many athletes still think they need post-event massage to rid their bodies of lactic acid (Vanderbilt, 2001). Despite the critics, many massage therapists are convinced of the benefits of post-event massage. They say post-event massage can help determine why an athlete did not perform up to expectations. A massage therapist for the Los Angeles Dodgers, William Leisure, said he uses post-event massage in the same way a detective might search for clues. Leisure described his work not only in terms of keeping the players ‘muscles loose and relaxed, but also keeping constant watch on their bodies. Even if someones not injured, if the performance wasnt quite right, I do a palpation to see if any muscles are tight. It has a lot to do with how good your hands are. Your brain and your thumbs have to be as one†¦ Its not just a rub. Its the information I can get from the body and turn it into something else to try to make a cohesive plan. Scanning the tissue and checking for deviations is kind of diagnostic, actually. That helps them to stay at peak performance (Vanderbilt,2001). The third category of sports massage, maintenance, is not administered on days of competition or performance. Instead it is done between events (Pike, p. 21). Usually, maintenance massages are given once week as part of Perceived Effectiveness of Sports Massage Therapy Perceived Effectiveness of Sports Massage Therapy Massage therapy has been used ancient times. There is evidence that the Chinese used therapeutic massage more than 3,000 years ago. Massage has fallen in and out of favour over time. One of the newest forms of massage therapy is sports massage. Famous athletes have publicly expressed their great satisfaction with sports massage. They claim that it has increased their athletic performance and helped speed their recovery after strenuous exercise. Non-professional athletes and their trainers has also become increasingly interested in sports massage, partly because of the acclaim it has received from elite athletes. This has led to even more interest in the therapy by non-athletes. Some of the popularity of sports massage can be attributed to the increasing acceptance of all forms of alternative therapies. Despite all of the intense interest, there is a lack of accurate information about massage. There are many widely held perceptions about the effectiveness of pre-event sports massage, including that it can prevent injury and provide an edge over the competition. However, there is no published research that suggests pre-event massage has a positive impact on performance or injury prevention. There is some evidence that massage after an athletic event can help reduce pain, but the results remain inconclusive. There has also been research that concluded that regular, or maintenance, massages can alleviate some symptoms. In 2004, a research team published A Meta-Analysis of Massage Therapy, which provided comprehensive look at the actual effectiveness of sports massage. Among other findings, they concluded that massage may reduce pain. However, the study debunked many of the widely held perceptions about the effectiveness of sports massage. Massage therapy does seem to have an impressive ability to reduce anxiety and depression. While the exact science behind the benefits sports massage remains elusive, many athletes, coaches, and massage therapists continue to believe that it can have a tremendous positive effect if used both before and after sporting events and during periods of training. Introduction Massage is one of the oldest and widely used therapies in the history of mankind. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defines massage as: â€Å"the rubbing or kneading of parts of the body especially to aid circulation, relax the muscles, or provide sensual stimulation.† These benefits have been enjoyed since ancient times and almost all cultures have used some version of therapeutic massage(Vickers, Zelman, 1999). However, in more recent history, massage has become an important tool for athletes. Sports massage is now considered powerful way to help maximize athletic performance (Davidson, 2001). The prevalence of this type of massage has rapidly increased over the last two decades and the perceived effectiveness of sports massages given before and after athletic events has become widespread. Massage may have become more en vogue recently, but it is certainly not new. The first evidence of massage can be seen in the Chinese Cong-Fou, written around 2700 B.C. The text makes references to the manipulation of soft tissue. The ancient Chinese massage techniques involved applying pressure to muscles and meridian points. There is evidence that the ancient Chinese practitioners believed their massage not only relaxed muscles, but also improved the function of internal organs(Calvert, 2001). Ancient Indian texts also described various massage techniques that were believed to promote spiritual and physical healing (Pike, p.viii). Even Hippocrates taught a form of massage to his students around500 B.C. Another famous Greek medical practitioner, Asclepiads, was so impressed by the perceived benefits of massage that the stopped using all other medicines and treatments and only used massage therapy for healing. He believed that massage techniques could increase and restore nutritive fluids (Calvert, 2001). However, over time, Western cultures gradually abandoned the Greek beliefs about massage. During the middle ages, massage was still used as a folk remedy, but established medical scientists discounted it and the use of massage was no longer considered part of regular medical treatment. (Calvert, 2001). About 150 years ago, a French translation of the Cong-Four appeared. Historians believe the text served as the foundation for the development of the now-popular Swedish massage (Davidson, 2001). There is some dispute over the origins of Swedish massage, but many credit Per Hendrix Ling for its development during the early 18th century. Ling promoted the idea that massage could heal the body by boosting circulation of the blood and limp systems. Ling’s massage technique was very vigorous and he prescribed a standardized treatment. He suffered from gout and developed the system to improve his condition and later to help others. He did not equate massage with relaxation or any other psychological benefit. In fact, he called it the â€Å"Swedish Movement Cure† (Cates, 1998). Current Swedish massage has evolved somewhat from Ling’s ideas and is now more gentle, although the focus is still on increasing the flow of oxygen in the blood and to assist the muscles in releasing toxins. In the last few decades, Swedish massage therapists have placed greater emphasis on the psychological benefits of massage and they strive to provide a sense of calmness and well-being.(Vickers, Zelman, 1999) Historically, the interest in massage has been cyclical. Massage fallout of favour, only to once again regain acceptance, many times over the last 500 years. Currently, massage has become far less important tour culture than medical drugs and surgery, but it is again becoming more popular as an alternative therapy (Cates, 1998). There are still many forms of massage found throughout the world, including Hawaiian, deep tissue, and Tue. Na. One of the newest forms of massage is sports massage. Although it is considered a separate form of massage, it shares strong similarities with Swedish Massage and the most of the techniques employed in Swedish massage are used in sports massage(Davidson, 2001). However, sports massage also incorporates Shiatsu massage techniques. Sports massage was largely developed by Jack Meagher. Meagher was the massage therapist for the US Olympic Equestrian Team. He developed sports massage based on the theory that there are a dozen body postures that form the axis of all athletic movement. Meagher said that because each sport requires that the athlete maintain certain postures, it is possible to identify potential overuse injuries before they occur and help prevent them through sports massage. Meagher wrote that athletic performance could be improved by 20% with the introduction of sports massage (Dion, 2001). Although sports massage encompasses many techniques, all sports massages geared toward generating the maximum performance from an athlete. The effects of sports massage are achieved through a combination of mechanical, physiological, and psychological processes. Research has demonstrated that the compression caused by correctly-applied sports massage can improve lymphatic and venous drainage in the body and boost circulation (Hollis, 1997). Under the general heading of sports massage, there are three distinctly different types of massage. Each has a different goal and employs different strokes. The three categories of sports massage are pre-event, post-event, and maintenance massage. Although sports massage has recently become more sophisticated, modern athletics have been using forms of pre-event and post-event massage for decades. For example, baseball pitchers have long used massage as an attempt to extend the length of their career by maintaining range of motion and flexibility. For many decades, boxing coaches and trainers have been seen giving boxers â€Å"rubdowns† before a fight in an effort toward-up the body by boosting circulation. This is an early form fore-event massage (Pike, p.viii). Modern sports massage first became integrated as part some teams ‘standard athletic training in the former Soviet Union, East Germany, and other Eastern European countries during the 1960s. Soviet teams were the first to employ dedicated massage therapists that traveled with them. In the 1970s, the trend became more widespread, as more European countries and teams in the United States began to take interest in sports massage (Davidson, 2001). However, it is only since the 1980s that sports massage has become truly mainstream. Now, it is a common practice for teams to integrate sports massage as part of their standard training regimen. Certified sports massage therapists have been seen at many major sporting events, including Ironman competitions, the Goodwill and Pan-American games, marathons, the Olympics, and professional bike races (Latina, 2000).When the U.S women’s soccer team defeated China, winning the World Cup, the players publicly thanked their sports massage therapist, Wynn Clinton and Jim Fayola. Goalkeeper Tracy Ducat said, â€Å"Clinton and Jim Fayola, who worked with him during the World Cup, were invaluable in the treatment they provided for us, testified Tracy Ducat, a goalkeeper on the team. We could not have been at our best without their help every day. Goalie Saki Webber agreed, saying, Without Clinton I think that it would have been a much different story. I think that he kept us healthy and kept us together during the World Cup† (Hued, 2002). Sports massage has also infiltrated smaller sports. For example, even some Canadian cowboys are receiving massages before and after rodeos, thanks to new mobile massage rooms are traveling with them (Visconti,p.54). Although professional sports teams have lead the way in incorporating sports massage, college, some secondary schools, and amateur teams are also exploring massage as a way to enhance performance. The public’s perceived value of the effectiveness of sports massage has been fuelled by public statements from well-known professional athletes who say their extraordinary skills have improved after undergoing regular massage therapy. For example, tennis champion, Martina Navratilova said, â€Å"I started getting massages and realized what wonderful thing it is for your body† (Sports Massage: Taking the Field ). Former professional football quarterback, Joe Montana, has said, â€Å"I’ve been working with massage for a few years now, and I found it helps you to recover a little quicker. The bumps and bruises seem Togo away a lot faster† (Sports Massage: Taking the Field). Canadian National Swim Team member, Marianne Limpet, agrees: â€Å"I find that massage is very beneficial in helping with a quicker recovery from hard training or racing, and it prevents me from getting tight muscles and injuring myself. I am one of few athletes at my age(30), and Im sure that massage has played a major role in helping to keep my body in shape to continue to this level† (Warren, 2003). Even Marjorie Album, the Chief Athletic Trainer of the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games, once commented, â€Å"I would not provide sports medicine services for any major athletic event without massage therapists.†(Sports Massage: The Athlete’s Trainer’s Edge ) With glowing testimonials from esteemed athletes and sports professionals, it is not surprising that more amateur and college athletes are now becoming interested in sports massage. After all, our society places great emphasis and value on athletics, and the financial and emotional rewards can be great to those who excel in their chosen sport. It is not surprising that sports massage is popular among those searching for competitive edge. This relatively new appreciation for sports massage has increased as part of a larger trend toward ergogenic aids to boost all types of athletic performance. Ergogenic aids include a wide variety of tools and therapies, such as visualization, meditation, and pre-event stretching. Advocates of sports massage say it is valuable ergogenic tool that can improve circulation, reduce stress, promote muscle efficiency and healing, and even prevent injuries (Pike, p. vii). The perceived benefits of massage have also become more wide-spread as the general acceptance of alternative medicines has increased. In a1997 random sample of 1,500 households in the United States, 42% of adults reported using some type of alternative therapy in the last year. Nearly 45% said they would be willing to pay more each month for alternative care. Additionally, when choosing healthcare, nearly 70% of respondents said having access to alternative therapies is an important factor in choosing a health insurance plan (Landmark Healthcare Inc.,1997). Alternative medicine is even more popular in the United Kingdom, where in studies, nearly 47% of respondents have reported they are using alternative therapies. Also in the U.K., of those undergoing complementary medicine, nearly nine out of ten are paying for their treatment (Thomas et al. p. 2 -11 ). Massage therapy is one of the fasting growing forms of alternative medicine. In 1999, The American Massage Therapy Association (AMTA)conducted a nationwide survey in the United States. Researchers found that 27% of adults had therapeutic massage in the last five years, compared to only 17% in a 1997 study who said they had a massage in the previous five years (Massage: Much-Kneaded Complementary Health Care). Another study conducted the previous year found that visits to massage therapists increased by nearly 36% in the years between 1990 and 1997(Eisenberg et al. p. 1569). Furthermore, in 2004, the National Centerior Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States reported that massage has become the ninth most popular alternative therapy treatment. In the study, 5% of respondents said they had received massage therapy at least one time in the previous year (Boneset al.). This translates into big business for the massage industry, as American consumers are spending up to $6 billion dollars a year on massage therapy (Eisenberg et al., p. 1569). This increasing interesting massage has created a surge in massage school educational facilities and applicants. As of 2002, there were more than 950 state-licensed massage schools in the U.S., which is 14% more school than existed in2000. In 2001, massage schools turned out an estimated 30,000 new graduates (Lacombe, p. 49). There are other significant signs that the perceived benefits of massage is having a strong effect on public policy. In the United States, The National Institutes of Health is currently sponsoring three studies in an attempt to clarify the medical benefits of massage. Additionally, a national survey of employer-sponsored healthcare plans found that 15% of HMOs cover massage therapy. Cigna and Blue Cross BlueShield also cover some forms of massage (Lacombe, p. 49).Furthermore, a 1995 study found that more than half of family doctors in the United States said they would recommend some form of massage therapy to their clients (Hedwig, p.1). This is a concern to some researchers who wonder if the benefits of massage are worth the price of the therapy. In their meta-analysis of massage therapy research, Moyer, Rounds, and Hanno wrote, â€Å"For these trends to continue (indeed, to determine if they even should continue),what is needed is a more rigorous and quantitative examination of MT’s(massage therapy’s) effectiveness that that which currently exists†(Moyer et al.). The perceived, yet often unexplained, effects of massage (including sports massage) have even created interested within the White House. In2004, the White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy called for more research and funding for public education on massage therapy. The commission’s chairman, James Gordon, did not offer an explanation of the actual benefits of massage, but he did allude to the widespread perceived effectiveness of the alternative treatment. He said: We shouldnt put too much weight on its benefits, but at the same time we should make it available to everyone. Massage does decrease anxiety, reliably. It does decrease pain in a number of people with chronic-pain syndrome. It does improve mood. Exactly how it does it, I don’t think we know (Lacombe, p. 50). AMTA researchers say as more people accept massage therapy as a viable treatment option, more athletes are becoming interested in sports massage. The AMATA now recognizes sports massage as a unique specialty field within the massage industry. There has also been increased interest in sports massage among the so-called â€Å"weekend warriors†(people who only exercise on the weekends) and those do not consider themselves athletes or exercise regularly. No matter how little time they spend taking part in athletics, some people want to enjoy the perceived benefits of sports massage. Licensed massage therapist John Balletto said, â€Å"Anyone who exercises or works in an active job or even has to constantly bend down to pick up a child can benefit from sports massage. This type of massage helps muscles deal with the repetitive motions inherent to these activities (Latina, 2000). In the past, there was a public perception that only elite athletes and wealthy, pampered women received regular massages. As sports massage becomes more mainstream and begins to be embraced by the general public, there is an increased perception that sports massage is not only a luxury, but a new necessity. This trend can be seen in many forms of mainstream media. For example, a college newspaper in Texas, The University Daily, recently ran an article that stated that more financially strained college students were paying for massages as a way to combat stress. It also explained how deep tissue massage can help relieve pain associated with carrying heavy book bags and suggested that students ask their parents to pay for a massage session. A massage therapist in the article was quoted as saying, â€Å"It is very therapeutic. It’s not a luxury like people think. If more people think of it as therapy, then more people could justify it that way (Aaron). However, despite the widespread interest in sports massage, there is a lack of reliable information on its benefits and effects. Using a search engine like Goolgle.com to search under the â€Å"benefits of sports massage† will turn up hundreds of websites offering glowing testimonials about the therapy and claims that are not backed up by current scientific research. For instance, SportsInjuryClinic.net claims that regular sports massage treatments will â€Å"maintain the body, prevent injuries and loss of mobility, cure and restore mobility to injured muscle tissue, boost performance, and extend the overall life of your sporting career† (Sports Injury Clinic). Another website for massage centre in Connecticut bluntly states, â€Å"Massage is beneficial when starting a conditioning program because it helps you get into good shape faster† (Buckland Massage Neuromuscular Centre). With so many websites making fantastic claims about the benefits of sports massage, it is easy to understand why the perceived benefits of sports massage currently held by the general public do not always match current scientific research. As previously mentioned, sports massage is broken down into three main categories: pre-event, post-event, and routine maintenance. Each of these forms of sports massage uses a combination of stroke techniques. In order to understand the research and perceived benefits of sports massage, it is important to understand the various stroke styles. The most common stroke strokes are effleurage, petrissage, and cupping(Davidson, 2001). Other common strokes include friction, range of motion movements, trigger point, and compression (which some massage therapists classify as a type of petrissage) (Pike, p. 26-31). Effleurage utilizes long, gentle strokes. This is the most basic type of stroke and warms the area for the work to come by increasing blood flow to the muscle (Pike, p. 26). This is the main stroke for creating relaxation and is often used most frequently at the start and end of massage therapy session, although it is useful throughout the therapy(Cates, 1998). Petrissage is a firmer, two handed kneading technique that includes blows to the muscle. Both hands grab the muscle and compress it. Massage therapists use petrissage to loosen tight muscles and squeeze blood out from deeper structures (Davidson, 2001). Cupping involves hitting the muscles with cupped hands. This stroke technique is used to break down scar tissue, relieve tension and tone the muscles (Davidson, 2001). Friction strokes are used only during deep tissue massage to relax the muscles and reduce adhesions. These circular strokes generate heat by increasing blood flow to the area being worked on (Pike, p. 32) Range of motion movements are assisted exercises that the massage therapist uses to increase the mobility of joints. The massage therapist moves the body while the athlete stays relaxed. Massage therapists report that this technique can extremely helpful for athletes, who usually need to have the maximum range of movement possible in order to excel at their sport (Pike, p. 34). Trigger points are parts of the muscle that are tight and painful. When massage therapist applies pressure to a trigger point, the athlete will often cry out in pain. Correctly massaging a trigger point will help release tight muscles and â€Å"break the pain cycle so the tissue can get blood and nutrients to heal and relax itself† (Pike, p. 31) Compression strokes are used on muscle bellies, generally in large areas, like the adductors. Massage therapists use compression, which Isa squeezing movement, to feel the tissues under the skin. Compression can stimulate and warm the tissue or relax the athlete, depending on the firmness of the stroke (Pike, p. 30). Many people mistakenly think that sports massage is beneficial because it is somehow â€Å"deeper† than other massages. However, that is not always the case. Sports massage is any massage technique that allows â€Å"active people to stay active, to keep the body in working order, and to aid rehabilitation following injury.. Thus it can also involve gentle rubbing, or even no rubbing at all. In fact, there are times when rubbing may be harmful and in this instance, stretching may be more beneficial† (Famous Therapies). Literature Review Many massage therapists believe that pre-event sports massage can help prevent serious injury by warming-up the muscles and improve performance during a competition. Meagre was strong advocate for-event massages. In his book, Sports massage, he wrote: Whatever sport you play, Sports massage will give you 20 per cent extraextra performance, extra protection, (and) extra time per game, per season, (and) per career.With Sports massage you can do what you do better, longer, and more easily, raising your performance level at the same time that you lower the stress level it places on your body†¦. Sports massage before (problems) reach the critical stage is the only sensible way to keep your entire muscular structure in top form(Massage Before, or After?). Pre-event massage is not intended to replace traditional warm-up methods. It is usually performed just before the athlete’s standard warm-up. Rapid effleurage stimulates and warms the muscles andpetrissage encourages the release of tension. It is common for the massage therapist to use shaking and stretching techniques. Deep tissue and friction are avoided. The part of the body that is massaged depends on the sport, but usually includes leg and back muscles (Davidson,2001). Pre-event massage generally only lasts about ten minutes. The goal Isa reduction in tension, but not total relaxation. Sports massage therapist, James Weslaco, says that most athlete want to feel stimulated, not overly relaxed, by a pre-event massage because being too relaxed can adversely affect performance (Vanderbilt, 2001). â€Å"(Pre-event massage) objectives are to increase circulation, increase range of motion of the joints, decrease tightness and hyper tonicity of major joints and muscles, and to relax and then invigorate the body to get it ready for the competition† (Pike, p. 19) The perceived benefit of fully prepared muscles is important to many athletes, who are well-aware of the many career-ending injuries that have been blamed on not properly warming-up. There is a widely-held belief that overuse injuries can be avoided if the athlete is warmed-up with a combination of massage and standard warm-up practices. However, many studies have suggested that the benefits of pre-event sports massage are mostly psychological and there is no evidence theatre-event massage can decrease the risk of injuries (Harmer, p.55). Some athletes say they perform better on the field after receiving pre-event massage. However, again, the benefits appear to be purely psychological. Research shows that massage, which is part of passive warm-up techniques that can also include saunas and hot showers, have little positive effect on performance (Volant’s, et al., 2001). In one study, members of a group of athletes who received pre-event massage each reported feeling that they could perform better on the field because of the therapy. Yet, their performance, heart rate and arteriovenous oxygen responses were not noticeable different than those of a control group that did not receive massage (Boone, et al., 1991). Although there are many widely embraced perceived benefits to pre-event sports massage, there has not been enough research to back up the antidotal evidence given by athletes and their massage therapists. Some studies have indicated that there can be physiological responses that result in improved outcome for the athlete. However, much of the research has not quantified the technique and pressure used by the massage therapist.. No study to date has examined how stroke forms and pressure (light touch versus firm) as an independent variable can affect athletic performance (Moyer et al.). Even though the benefits of pre-event massage are still unknown, it continues to increase in popularity, not just in athletics but also another performance-driven industries. Robert King, president and-founder of Chicago School of Massage Therapy, says Its a debatable subject in terms of actual research that substantiates it.† Yet, he continues to see the demand for pre-event message grow. Ive worked on runners, actors and actresses before performances, boxers and swimmers, and again it depends on the type of muscle youre going to encounter and the condition and goals of the athlete. The approach is geared toward the needs of that particular event (Vanderbilt, 2001). Unlike pre-event massage, post-event massage may have measurable benefits. Post-event massage is performed one to two hours after the athlete has finished taking part in a sporting event, in order to allow time for blood vessels dilated by exercise to return to their normal state. The goal of this type of massage is to reduce the trauma caused by strenuous exercise. Light effleurage is used to minimize swelling. Practitioners believe light petrissage will promotes cellular waste removal and clear toxins from the body. (Pike, p. 20). â€Å"The goals are to relax tight muscles, decrease muscle soreness, facilitate faster recovery time, relieve cramping, increase lymphatic circulation and removal of post activity metabolites, and relax the nervous system† (Pike, p. 20). Other perceived benefits of post-event massage therapy include the lessening of muscle spasms and an increase in flexibility which may prevent future injuries. Although receiving a massage after a strenuous workout can feel very pleasurable, practitioners should limit sessions to under 30 minutes because tired muscles may be more prone to injury. In fact, some therapists believe that the longer the athletic event is, the shorter the post-event massage should be (Cates, 1998). The perceived effectiveness of post-event massage is pervasive among professional athletes. There is a strong belief that the therapy can speed recovery after extreme exertion. For example, Butch Reynolds, the400 meter world record holder was quoted as saying that because of massage, â€Å"If [a muscle pull or strain] does occur, it’s easy to heal. The healing process is cut in half.† Professional football linebacker Al Smith has also heralded the benefits of post-event massage. He said, â€Å"It helps me quite a bit. It helps my recovery time from the game. Athletes are using it quite a bit.† (Sports Massage: Taking the Field)Perhaps the most famous advocate of post-event massage is Michael Jordan. In talking about his physical problems after a performance, the basketball player said, â€Å"I was a little concerned, because I couldn’t really walk welland my mobility was very, very limited. But two days of electros Tim, massaging and heat treatments really loosened things up (How Massage Aides Athletic Performance). Despite scepticism that massage has physiological benefits, Davidson advocates the use of post-event massage to speed recovery (2001). She writes that sports massage can reduce the swelling of micro-traumas. Micro-traumas are small tears that occur in muscles during strenuous exercise. Davidson claims that post-event massage will also remove lactic acid and waste build-up in the muscles, help maintain flexibility, and reduce cramping. However, while Davidson’s theories may be popular, there are studies that dispute the claims. For instance, the blood pressure, cardiac output, heart rate, and lactic acid levels of ten men were compared during a recent study. Lactic acid is a by-product of exercise that occurs during exercise when there is a lack of oxygen in the body’s tissues. Some massage practitioners have made the claim that massage can help the body eliminate waste products, including lactic acid. However, the men in the study who received massage had similar levels of lactic acid to the men who were not treated with a massage(Callaghan, p. 31). Furthermore, the group that received massages performed no better than the control group. The idea the lactic acid can (and should) be flushed from the body during post-event massage is a good example of how the perceived effectiveness of massage does not always match current scientific research. For many years, massage therapists believed that they could help athletes get rid of lactic acid. They passed this belief onto clients, including many athletes, who accepted the theory as fact. The false assumptions about lactic acid were even taught in massage schools. Even though scientific studies have debunked this belief, many athletes still think they need post-event massage to rid their bodies of lactic acid (Vanderbilt, 2001). Despite the critics, many massage therapists are convinced of the benefits of post-event massage. They say post-event massage can help determine why an athlete did not perform up to expectations. A massage therapist for the Los Angeles Dodgers, William Leisure, said he uses post-event massage in the same way a detective might search for clues. Leisure described his work not only in terms of keeping the players ‘muscles loose and relaxed, but also keeping constant watch on their bodies. Even if someones not injured, if the performance wasnt quite right, I do a palpation to see if any muscles are tight. It has a lot to do with how good your hands are. Your brain and your thumbs have to be as one†¦ Its not just a rub. Its the information I can get from the body and turn it into something else to try to make a cohesive plan. Scanning the tissue and checking for deviations is kind of diagnostic, actually. That helps them to stay at peak performance (Vanderbilt,2001). The third category of sports massage, maintenance, is not administered on days of competition or performance. Instead it is done between events (Pike, p. 21). Usually, maintenance massages are given once week as part of